Muhammad Abduh Read online

Uthman Amin. Muhammad Abduh. Cairo: Dar ihya al-kutub al-arabiyya, 1944. Trans. Charles Wendell. Washington, DC:American Council of Learned Societies, 1953.

  Van Ess, Josef. “Libanesische Mizellen: 6. Die Yashrutiya.” Die Welt des Islams 16 (1975), pp. 1–103.

  Weismann, Itzchak. “Between Sufi Reformism and Modernist Rationalism:A Reappraisal of the Origins of the Salafiyya from the Damascene Angle.” Die Welt des Islams 41 (2001), pp. 206–37.

  Wissa, Karim. “Freemasonry in Egypt 1798–1921:A Study in Cultural and Political Encounters.” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 16, no. 2 (1989), pp. 143–61.

  INDEX

  For Arabs and Ottomans, see under first name

  Abbas Hilmi, Khedive 72, 74–5, 77–8, 81, 115, 116

  clashes with Muhammad Abduh 97, 107–13

  Abd al-Halim, Prince 20, 27, 42

  Abd al-Hamid, Sultan 49–50, 53, 62, 88

  Abd al-Qadir, Amir 35, 58

  Abd al-Rahman Kuraha 117–18

  Abd al-Salam al-Muwaylihi 25

  Abduh ibn Hasan Khayrallah 1–2, 4

  Abdullah al-Nadim 10, 22, 32

  Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im 121

  Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdullah ibn Sina 11, 38

  Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn al-Arabi al-Maliki 99, 100, 111

  Abu naddara 21–2, 105

  Abu Tammam Habib ibn Aws al-Ta’i 60

  Abu Turab 36, 39

  Abu Zayd Abd al-Rahman ibn Khaldun 11, 17, 60

  Abu‘l-Walid Muhammad ibn Rushd 89

  Adib Ishaq 10, 22–4, 44, 63

  Afghani, see Jamal al-Din al-Afghani

  Afghanistan 8, 18

  agnosticism 113–14

  see also atheism; freedom of thought; religiosity

  ahliyya degree 75–6

  Ahmad al-Badawi 2, 111

  Ahmad ibn Miskawayh 16

  Ahmad Khan 30, 39–40, 58, 60, 66

  Ahmad Lutfi 92, 116, 117

  Ahmad Pasha al-Minshawi 91–2

  Ahmad Shafiq Pasha 113

  Ahmad Urabi, Colonel 31–5, 107

  Ahram, Al- 22, 105, 111, 125

  Alexandria 5, 29, 34, 36, 44, 113, 124

  Algeria 101–2

  Ali ibn Abi Talib, Imam 60

  Ali Mubarak 7

  Ali Yusuf 87, 101

  Aligarh 40

  alimiyya degree 7, 13, 76

  appointments of Muhammad Abduh 72–4, 77–8, 83

  Arabic language

  Afghani’s 10

  colloquial 22, 105

  improvement of 30

  little known in India 45

  Muhammad Abduh’s 15, 33, 60

  religious duty to preserve 54

  Semitic 52

  use of by educated 90

  use of by elite 20, 24, 29, 120

  Arabic literature 60, 76, 92, 124

  Aristotle 11, 16

  Aryan, see race

  assassination 23, 26, 58

  atheism 38, 63–4

  see also agnosticism; infidelity; religiosity

  autocracy 26, 31–2, 50, 88

  see also liberty; tyranny

  Avicenna 11, 38

  Azhar

  administration of 7, 74–5; see also Azhar Administrative Council

  conditions at 6–7

  hostile to Afghani 27

  hostile to Muhammad Abduh 12–13, 103–4, 106–7, 109

  lectures of Muhammad Abduh at 84–7

  Muhammad Abduh studies at 7–8, 12–13

  Muhammad Abduh teaches at 13, 15–16, 83–7

  publications of 91

  rector of 7, 13, 75, 78, 106–7, 109

  reform of 7, 74–6, 77

  Azhar Administrative Council 75–6, 79, 84, 101, 111–12

  Azhar Council 7

  backwardness, see decline

  Badi al-Zaman al-Hamadhani 60

  Baha’ism 23, 62

  Bakunin, Mikhail 19

  Baring, Sir Evelyn, see Cromer, Lord

  Beirut 36, 39, 42, 45, 59–63, 64, 71–2, 88

  bida 30, 123

  birth of Muhammad Abduh 1

  Blunt, Wilfrid 33, 45–8, 50, 51, 55, 57–8, 62, 93

  Borg, Raphael 19

  Brighton 92–3

  Britain, see Ahmad Urabi; Brighton; Cromer; London; Wafd Party

  Broadley, Alexander 21, 33, 34

  Butrus Ghali Pasha 21, 114

  Cairo University, see Egyptian University

  Charles Stone Pasha, General 24

  childhood

  of Muhammad Abduh 1–5

  views of Spencer on 93

  children of Muhammad Abduh 42, 59–60

  cholera 109–10

  Christianity 19–20, 38, 40, 48–9, 106, 111

  see also inter-religious relations; missionaries; Protestantism

  Christians, Orthodox and oriental 2, 23–4, 35, 36, 49, 55, 60, 63, 84, 102

  Churchill, Lord Randolph 47

  civilization, see European civilization; progress

  clothing, see fez; hat; shoes

  Commission of Inquiry 18, 71

  Commission of the Public Debt 18

  Commission on Azhar reform 74–5

  Commission on education of Sharia Court judges 112, 115

  Commission on interest 87, 110

  Commission on Ottoman educational reform 61

  community, see identity; nationalism; Ottoman community

  constitutional government 16, 25–6, 31–3, 48–50

  see also liberty

  Council, see Azhar Administrative Council; Azhar Council; Council for Endowments; Treasury Council

  Council for Endowments 83, 95–6, 105, 110

  Court of Appeal

  national 74, 77

  Sharia 78, 118

  court system 72–3, 79–80

  courts, see mixed courts; national courts; Sharia Courts

  Cragg, Kenneth 125

  Cromer, Lord 71–2, 78, 108

  and Muhammad Abduh 72, 102, 109, 110, 112, 113–14

  after Muhammad Abduh’s death 115–16

  crusades 17, 58, 67

  Damascus 35

  Dar al-Ulum 15, 17, 72, 76

  Darwin 39–40, 64, 87

  see also evolution

  Darwish, uncle 4–5, 8, 13

  dawsa 30

  death of Muhammad Abduh 113

  decay, see decline

  decline 38, 67, 87, 105, 123; see also philosophy, alleged Arab hostility to

  development, see progress

  disease 68, 109

  see also hygiene

  dress, see fez; hat; shoes

  Dumas, Alexandre 74

  education

  primary 30, 75–6, 92–3, 106, 112; see also school in Tanta

  secondary 30, 60–1, 112

  higher 91–2; see also Azhar; Egyptian University; school for Sharia Court judges

  Egyptian Press Association 105

  Egyptian University 91–1, 115, 116, 123, 124

  England, see Ahmad Urabi; Brighton; Cromer; London; Wafd Party

  Enlightenment 16, 64

  equity, see maslaha

  European civilization 16–18, 58, 67, 77, 101, 122

  European holidays 76–7

  evolution 69

  see also Darwin

  exegesis, see methodology; tafsir

  Fahmi, Leon 108

  Falsafat al-ijtima 17

  family of Muhammad Abduh 42, 59–60

  Farah Antun 88–9

  Farsi 39

  fatalism 67, 70

  see also predestination

  fatwa 83, 84, 95–7, 97–9, 101

  fez 15, 46, 98, 118

  finance

  consumer 95–6, 117–18

  Islamic 118

  finances

  of Egyptian government 18, 25, 71

  of émigrés 43

  of ulema 6, 83

  foreign languages 74

  free will, see predestination

  freedom of thought 23, 38–9,
74, 124, 126

  see also liberty

  Freemasonry 22, 35, 44

  and Egyptian politics 20–6; see also Kawkab al-Sharq

  and Muhammad Abduh in later years 114, 123

  nature of 19–20, 21, 24

  French language 36, 43, 61, 64, 74, 92

  Fuad I University, see Egyptian University

  Garibaldi, Giuseppe 19

  Geneva 77

  God 40, 52–3, 113; see also revelation

  existence of 11, 65

  as the origin of truth 23

  as a prior or first cause 65, 68, 89

  role of 67–8, 89

  Gorst, Sir Eldon 116

  government, see autocracy; constitutional government; liberty; revolution; tyranny

  Grand Orient 20, 24, 25, 114

  Great Britain, see Ahmad Urabi; Brighton; Cromer; London; Wafd Party

  Greece

  ancient 16, 37

  modern 2, 108, 124

  Guerville, Amédée de 91

  Guizot, François 16–17, 58, 60, 67, 68, 86, 123

  hadith 3, 55, 66, 68, 86, 99–100, 119–20, 123

  hajj pilgrimage 106, 109–10

  Hanotaux, Gabriel 87

  Haqiqat-i mazhab-i naichun 39, 51–2, 65–6

  Hasan al-Banna 119

  Hassuna al-Nawawi 77–8

  hat 98

  see also fez; identity

  Himarat Munyati 105–7, 110

  history, see Ibn Khaldun; Guizot; Risalat al-tawhid

  Howard, George, Earl of Carlisle 47

  Husayn al-Jisr 64, 88

  hygiene 7, 76

  see also disease

  Ibn Khaldun 11, 17, 60

  Ibn Rushd 89

  Ibn Sina 11, 38

  Ibn Taymiyya 122–3

  Ibrahim al-Bajuri 7

  Ibrahim al-Laqqani 22, 36, 43

  Ibrahim al-Muwaylihi 43, 45, 59

  identity

  of Muhammad Abduh 15, 46–7, 60

  national 101–2, 127

  images 101

  India 30, 39–40, 45, 46, 49, 50, 66, 71, 98

  see also Ahmad Khan; Jamal al-Din al-Afghani

  infidelity 38, 113–14

  see also agnosticism; atheism; religiosity

  insurance 96–7, 100, 117–18

  intercession 67

  interpretation of Muhammad Abduh

  general 121–6

  impact on Egypt 115–17

  impact on Islam 117–21

  inter-religious relations 55, 61–3, 69–70, 88–9, 98–9

  interest, financial 67, 95–7, 105, 110

  Iran, see Persia

  Islam 64, 104, 127

  see also prayer; religiosity; revelation; Sharia

  Islamic finance 118

  see also finance, consumer

  Ismail, Khedive

  reforms 7, 10, 15

  opposition to 18, 20–2, 24–6, 103

  in exile 45

  Istanbul 9–10, 45, 58, 61, 87, 101, 108

  Italy 19, 21, 37, 45, 61

  Jamal al-Din al-Afghani

  early career 9–10

  in Cairo 8–9, 10–12

  foments revolution in Egypt 18–27

  expelled from Egypt 27

  in Paris 36–7, 44–5, 49–52

  Muhammad Abduh leaves 57

  later career 57–8

  death 58

  religiosity of 38–41

  later views of 124–6

  Jarida, Al- 116

  Jews 10, 23, 49–50, 55, 62, 69, 85, 99, 102

  jihad 23–4, 54–5

  Journal des débats 36–8

  journalism; see also opposition to Muhammad Abduh; press

  British 25–6, 51

  Egyptian 10, 21–4, 29

  French 36–8

  Islamic 90–1; see also Urwa al-wuthqa

  Muhammad Abduh’s 29–31; see also Urwa al-wuthqa

  Ottoman and Syrian 43, 88

  popular 21–2, 105–7

  Judaism, see Jews

  jurisprudence, see methodology; usul al-fiqh

  Kant, Immanuel 74

  Kawkab al-Sharq 19–21, 24–5, 26

  Kedourie, Elie 125–6

  Kerr, Malcolm 125

  Khedival Law School 73

  Khedival School of Languages 15

  khedive 10

  see also Abbas Hilmi; Ismail; Tawfiq

  Labouchere, Henry 47–8

  languages, see Arabic; Farsi; French

  Latif Salim, Major 25

  law; see also court system

  of God, see Sharia

  reform 79–81

  rule of 73–4; see also liberty

  Law School, Khedival 73

  Legislative Council 83

  Leon Fahmi 108

  liberty 17, 21, 23, 27, 32, 34–5, 51, 65–6

  see also freedom of thought; law, rule of

  Liwa, Al- 100

  lodge, see Freemasonry; Kawkab al-Sharq

  London 47–9, 50, 57–8

  see also United Grand Lodge

  McIlwraith, Malcolm 77–8, 80

  Madaniyya 4–5, 35

  madhhabs 80–1, 84, 98, 111

  demise of 118–20, 123; see also talfiq; taqlid

  Mahallat Nasr 2, 3–4, 27, 29

  Mahdi 45–6

  Mahmud Sami Pasha al-Barudi 33

  Malaya 90

  Manar, Al- 84–5, 88–90, 95, 111, 114, 121, 128

  marriage; see also polygamy

  of Muhammad Abduh 42, 59–60

  Marx, Karl 17

  maslaha 80, 119

  Masonry, see Freemasonry; Kawkab al-Sharq

  meat 98–9, 110–11, 118

  Mecca 106, 109, 119; see also hajj pilgrimage

  in history 54, 67, 86, 87

  Medina 4, 119

  Mehmet Ali Pasha 1, 6, 10, 18, 20, 108

  methodology 55, 66, 99–100, 120–1, 127

  Mill, John Stuart 17

  Mirat al-sharq 22

  Mirza Muhammad Baqir 48–9, 62

  Misr (newspaper) 22

  Misr al-fatat 22

  missionaries, Christian 30, 61, 92

  mixed courts 71, 95

  modernism 60, 96, 101–2, 121, 127–8 see also Ahmad Khan

  modernity 70

  of Muhammad Abduh 33, 64, 68, 70, 92

  modernization

  of Egypt 9, 15, 26, 117; see also Azhar reform; education; law reform

  of Ottoman Empire 50

  Mohamed Haddad 126

  Mohammed Arkoun 121

  Mu’ayyad, Al- 87, 105

  Mufti

  duties of 77–8, 83–4

  Muhammad Abduh as 81, 83–4; see also fatwa

  Muhammad, Prophet 54, 65, 67, 69 see also bida; hadith; revelation

  Muhammad Abd al-Halim, Prince 20, 27, 42

  Muhammad al-Farabi 11

  Muhammad al-Madani 4–5

  Muhammad al-Sharbatli 105

  Muhammad Arkoun 121

  Muhammad Bakhit 117

  Muhammad Baqir, Mirza 48–9, 62

  Muhammad Bey Rasim 113

  Muhammad Haddad 126

  Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab 119–20, 126

  Muhammad Sharif Pasha 20, 25–7, 31, 36, 44

  Muhammad Talaat Harb 92, 116–17

  Muhyi al-Din Bey Humada 36, 60

  Muhyi al-Din ibn al-Arabi 35

  Mulla Sadra 11

  Muqattam, Al- 105, 111

  Muslim Benevolent Society 92–3

  Mustafa Abd al-Raziq 123–4

  Mustafa Fahmi 91

  Mustafa Kamil 110

  Mustafa Riyad Pasha 10, 15, 18–19, 22, 25, 27, 29, 31, 36

  Mutazila 12–13

  mysticism 11–12, 21, 35

  see also Sufism

  Nasr Abu Zayd 121

  national courts 73, 74, 77, 79–80

  nationalism; see also identity

  early 21, 23–4, 46, 47, 49–51; see also Ahmad Urabi

  khedival 75

  later 1
09, 116–17, 122, 124, 127–8

  native courts, see national courts

  nature, laws of 39–41

  see also science

  Nazli Fadil, Princess 91

  Neo-Sufism 4–5, 35

  newspaper, see by title

  see also journalism

  Nihilism 23, 27

  Nubar Pasha 25

  Omar Lutfi 92, 116

  opposition to Muhammad Abduh

  Azhar 103–4, 106–7, 109

  khedive 97, 107–13

  press 105–7, 110–11

  Orientalism 36, 66

  Osama bin Laden 54, 126

  Ottoman community 24, 88

  Ottoman Empire

  Afghani and 9, 18, 45, 49–51, 57–8

  Egypt and 1, 26, 71, 77–8

  exiles from 43

  government of 21, 43, 108

  modernization of 9

  Muhammad Abduh in 35–6, 59–91, 101

  Muhammad Abduh on 51

  Ottoman Islam 10, 80, 97–8, 103

  Ottoman Turkish language 24, 29

  Paris 42–55, 91, 99

  see also Grand Orient

  Parnell, Charles Stewart 47

  pasha 9

  see also individuals by name

  patriotism, see nationalism

  Persia 12, 18, 23, 37, 51, 62

  see also Jamal al-Din al-Afghani; Shi’ism

  Persian language 39

  philosophy; see also reason

  alleged Arab hostility to 37–9, 41, 89

  of history, see Guizot; Ibn Khaldun

  Islamic 11–12, 65; see also mysticism

  Western 64, 74, 124

  photography 47, 106–7

  Plotinus 11

  politics, see autocracy; constitutional government; liberty; revolution; theocracy; tyranny

  polygamy 2, 30, 39, 86, 100

  prayer 8–9, 54, 98

  intercessory 67

  wearing shoes 101, 114

  predestination 13, 65, 67–8, 86, 87–8, 105–6

  press, see journalism

  progress 9, 31, 33, 37, 51, 69–70, 75–6, 84, 88–9, 95, 118

  prophecy 9–10, 11, 63, 69

  see also revelation

  Protestantism 61–7

  see also Reformation

  Quran 40; see also methodology; revelation; tafsir; usul al-fiqh

  createdness of 48–9

  learned by Muhammad Abduh 2

  logic of 65

  use of by Afghani and in Al-Urwa al-wuthqa 44, 52–5

  use of in Azhar lectures 85–7

  race 37, 51–2, 87–8

  Radd ala al-dahriyyin, Al-, see Haqiqat-i mazhab-i naichun

  Rashid Rida 88–9, 114, 119, 121–4, 125

  reason; see also Enlightenment; philosophy

  Afghani on 39, 41

  Ibn Abd al-Wahhab on 119

  Muhammad Abduh on 54–4, 65–9, 87, 119

  opposed to revelation 13

  theocracy as enemy of 16–17, 66

  rector, see Azhar, rector of

  Reformation 16, 64, 67, 91

  religiosity; see also agnosticism; atheism; freedom of thought; infidelity